Problem-Solving for a World of Difference - Resource Developments, Indigenous Interests in Land and Conflict Analysis
| Author: |
Judith Morrison B.A., M.Litt.
Consultant
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| Issue: |
Volume 6, Number 1 (March 1999)
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ContentsProblem-Solving for a World of Difference - Resource Developments, Indigenous Interests in Land and Conflict Analysis
- This article discusses one possible way that negotiation processes in Australia between resource development corporations, government
agencies and indigenous groups could become more meaningful and inclusive to ensure that the rights and life chances of Aboriginal
people are well accounted for in outcomes. It suggests that legislation alone cannot guarantee better outcomes, nor transform underlying
value differences; instead, processes are needed which address and work through both 'formal' and 'informal' features which influence
negotiations simultaneously. The article outlines some of the constraints which presently hinder integrated decision-making in Australia.
- Given that environmental problem-solving is a global phenomenon, it examines whether decision-makers in Australia might look more
closely at the theoretical frameworks and the practical intermediary skills derived from inter-group conflict resolution, which merge
'material' settlements with 'psychological' settlements. Conflict resolution is needed when negotiations fail to produce workable
outcomes, and polarised and often hostile 'cultures of non-cooperation' are created. The models of conflict resolution, applied pro-actively,
could help to more clearly articulate 'risk factors', and avert problem issues in negotiations escalating into conflicts. These models
could be applied within a wide range of scenarios, irrespective of the present degree of intensity of a problem.
- The underlying common thread between conflict resolution and conflict aversion is that it will always be challenging to reconcile
groups who are competing for the same resources, particularly if they have profoundly different values, interests and goals. The
issue is whether decision-makers in Australia know where to look for conflict analysis models in order to decide if they are relevant
to deal with local cross-cultural issues being negotiated between resource developers and indigenous communities, and more generally,
what they might learn to help bridge the gap between factions who do not understand each other's point of view.
- Gradually within Australia ideas have translated into legislation and policy formulation that Aboriginal people have equal rights
to life chances on terms that are of their own choosing. However, changes in formal policy and legislation often only offer guidelines
which specify the boundaries of what is acceptable through regulation. The changes do not automatically bring into being new practical
mechanisms for decision-making across the political, economic and social spheres, nor can they magically transform underlying value
differences, which have the potential to scuttle seemingly workable arrangements. The present debates in Australia over responsibility
for land, land ownership, sharing of resources, and, inevitably, native title entail many deeply held value differences, contradictions,
assumptions, fears, and suspicions that are not easy to express in formal legislative or policy statements. There are still uncertainties
in the search for effective models, which demonstrate how policies and laws relating to indigenous rights can be made meaningful
and put into effect in diverse situations.
- Since native title has become a feature of negotiation processes in Australia, uncertainties over title and cross-cultural settlement
procedures represent risk to corporations through delay. When operating offshore, corporations often contend with even more complex
negotiations and probably less certainty that local community dissatisfactions can be easily resolved within existing government
policy. However, both within Australia and offshore, corporations undertaking resource developments such as mining are increasingly
required to transact complex negotiation processes to successfully initiate, develop and maintain projects in unfamiliar social environments.
Corporations have to demonstrate accountability for the outcomes of projects - to stakeholders, the general public, shareholders,
insurers, governments and increasingly to indigenous communities and non-government organisations concerned to ensure that there
is due respect for the social and environmental needs of indigenous communities.
- The 'cost' of failing to address the social dimension of economic activity is increasingly being articulated within the economic sector
itself. Social impact audits can demonstrate linkages as to how initiatives to gain economic advantage may have incurred social
disadvantage. The negative consequences of change are often expressed as social issues, such as equality, safety and human rights.
If social security is well articulated through legislation, action to remedy problems will require specific responses from the economic
sector, through insurance and compensation claims for instance. In other circumstances, the consequences of change may require governments
to institute remedial measures and allocate resources to provide or underpin a safety net of sustainability. In the case of a resource
development project, a consequence can be that a local indigenous social system becomes less cohesive or is not adapting to profound
change within a region. Poor outcomes from negotiated settlements often arise, particularly for indigenous people, when certain
groups are excluded from the decision-making processes. Those who feel excluded may use what power or influence that becomes available
to them some other way to claim a share of any benefits of changing resource use. Disruptive or dysfunctional outcomes can also
arise when there is such a degree of misunderstanding between the developers, the government, and indigenous communities that new
large scale resource projects do not bring the promised benefits that people living in the area were led to expect would be the result.
- The competitive nature of resource developments such as mining is one of a number of factors which inhibits open disclosure about
how solutions are sought and agreements reached between corporations, government agencies and indigenous groups. In turn this can
inhibit the development of industry-wide models and methodologies which help to identify broader stakeholder interests in cross-cultural
evaluations. Some issues to do with resource developments relate, on the one hand, to the 'material' or tangible features of an
exchange, such as compensation, rent or revenue payments which are usually dealt with through lawyers, corporate managers or government
representatives.
- On the other hand, exchanges may also need to work through different values and beliefs that are important to those involved. These
features require a recognition of the 'psychological' or intangible features of a cross-cultural exchange. It is challenging to
find processes which accommodate both types of features simultaneously and allow all stakeholder groups to express and work through
often conflicting values, motivations, goals, lifestyles and concerns. However, the ultimate validity and workability of agreements
will be founded on how well the process has encompassed the range of ideas which generate action. The spokespeople who negotiate
settlements will come from profoundly diverse backgrounds, ranging from professionals, such as lawyers, to indigenous representatives
whose role is to promote the spiritual and secular interests of one or a number of local groups.
- Resource development activity is integral to an increasingly globalised economy, so how it is addressed in Australia has relevance
and is inter-related with how groups in diverse and often remote regions attempt to deal with contentious changes to local environments.[1] Cross-cultural negotiations conducted in Australia represent one expression of the global issue of environmental problem-solving.
Large scale resource development projects in diverse localities around the world give rise to a range of responses from local communities.
The re-direction of local resources may bring beneficial development, but equally it can engender fear and uncertainty, particularly
when changes profoundly alter a local group's lifestyle. The way local dissatisfactions are addressed can depend on what decision-making
mechanisms are available so that contending groups can work through ways of sharing resources and agreeing about the distribution
of benefits of change. The degree of grass roots dissatisfaction with new projects may not necessarily correlate with the degree
of actual physical change. It can equally hinge around issues of inclusiveness in decision-making, and to what extent dissatisfactions
are addressed or overridden.
- Empirical data is practically impossible to obtain in order to make global comparisons about negative and positive outcomes from resource
development activity for indigenous communities. However, general contemporary patterns and trends relating to serious civil disturbance
suggest that environmental change has to be a significant contributing factor in ongoing and emerging conflicts.[2] Many civil conflicts are triggered by conflicting ideas about how local resources are to be used, particularly water or commodities
earmarked for export. Environmental conflicts are more likely to escalate into serious factional disputes in states where a number
of ethnic or social groupings are working through transitions between small-scale community decision-making and state-wide political
organisation. If environmental problem-solving is not effective, conflicts of ideas can escalate into intransigent hostile polarisations,
whereby contending groups begin to channel their energies toward achieving gains for one 'side' or the other.
- Internationally available information about the quality of environmental decision-making shows up most dramatically through the reporting
of failures to find agreement. There are at present more than thirty armed struggles throughout the world.[3] The circumstances which lead to all-out conflict cannot always be well documented by external agencies or academic institutions in
the same way that regional social planning issues are now monitored in developed first world states. However, it is clear enough
that each episode of environmental problem-solving is part of a global phenomenon. Individuals throughout the world are attempting
to address problems relating to the use of resources within their own locality. How effective their attempts will be for reaching
mutually acceptable decisions always depends on a wide range of factors, such as how the changes are being introduced, the local
socio-political dynamics, and different groups' access to intermediary skills to create meaningful dialogue between the different
parties. The Stockholm International Peace Research Institute[4] produces annual reports on armed conflicts throughout the world. SIPRI's resources only allow it to report on all-out confrontations,
and in many cases there will be little chance that accurate accounts of the complex circumstances that triggered deadly confrontation
will be available. Similarly, surveys like the one SIPRI produces cannot report accurately about many other short term or small
scale violent and costly confrontations which are not extensively reported, nor can their surveys take stock of the many other less
overt simmering 'cultures of non-cooperation'.
- Even though Australia's relative stability and legislative reforms have lessened the likelihood of further catastrophic outcomes for
aboriginal people, it is apparent that there are still many impediments to realising an effective integration of economic rights,
human rights and environmental integrity in decision-making relating to resource development projects.[5] Formal legal and statutory regulations now stipulate that, where appropriate, indigenous groups have the right to be included in
decision-making. Models to guide participants through the most effective processes are gradually emerging which integrate the range
of cross-cultural factors that will influence agreements. If emerging processes are meaningfully analysed they can be more effectively
adapted and used by people in other localities, both in Australia and elsewhere.
- In Australia, individuals working within corporations and the political and social infrastructures that support and promote their
activities, face dilemmas about where to look for frameworks which are both practical and extensive enough to negotiate agreements
which will be considered fair, workable, and promote long term sustainability. The success of each settlement is always influenced
by many 'intangibles' such as the extent to which various players are invited to or prepared to specify their intentions, whether
other parties believe them, whether the parties have conflicting intentions, and whether they can agree about how ideas will be carried
through into actions which recognise, respect and adapt to cultural difference and the changing needs and goals of the parties.
- Pro-active conflict analysis could make a substantial contribution toward describing processes for effective decision-making when
indigenous communities, government agencies and resource developers, such as mining companies, negotiate about a prospective change
of land use. It could assist groups to develop a more complete understanding of the complexities and relevant features of a forthcoming
interaction where groups have many different needs, goals and interests to consider. Groups may find that the models which have
developed out of conflict resolution in hostile conflict scenarios can help them to incorporate within the decision-making an adequately
broad awareness of the needs, goals and interests of a wide range of stakeholders well before stresses and frustration lead to polarisations.[6] 'Common sense' is often not common enough to address complex issues. When groups have different goals, there can be profound challenges
in coming to mutually agreeable and integrated ideas about how and why certain courses of action should be taken. Conflict analysis
could help individuals and groups to appreciate, prepare for, and work through what can happen when different groups' courses of
action intersect.
- Groups may have an understandable resistance to considering integrated and co-operative approaches to problem-solving if a 'softer'
approach might somehow threaten their immediate interests. However, they may be more willing to consider an integrated approach
if the conflict analysis models that have derived from seriously polarised conflicts demonstrate that avoiding joint resolutions
can lead to consequences that are costly and non-productive. The advantage of conflict analysis derived from work to alleviate seriously
polarised outcomes is that it realistically deals with the inevitable fact that it will always be challenging to develop linkages
between groups who have a limited understanding and awareness of each other's needs and interests, but that nevertheless it may ultimately
be worthwhile addressing them pro-actively.
- The most obvious applications of peace studies are conflict resolution, peace-keeping and negotiation in hostile conflict zones.
Practitioners working in the field of national and international conflict resolution have become skilled at identifying and tracing
varying degrees of cohesion, co-operation and conflict within specific social settings. The way they frame the issues could offer
participants to a forthcoming negotiation practical and useful perspectives and ways to identify where, why and how particular courses
of action will be supportable or otherwise by those on whom change impacts.[7] The knowledge and experience derived from this type of fieldwork could be relevant to assist policy-makers, government officials,
corporate managers or indigenous spokespeople when new resource development projects are planned. All representatives to the decision-making
could benefit from preparatory skills which help to identify the complex range of influences which will have a bearing on the situation.
The issue of whether the outcome is likely to result in a 'crisis' should not dictate the degree of care taken to integrate and
work through various groups' needs and interests. Poor negotiations can themselves produce poor outcomes. Conflict analysis could
more meaningfully describe the processes groups are using, or could use, through which to negotiate. This can help to focus on
what the problem is, rather than who the problem is. The models could be offered to corporations, indigenous communities and agencies,
government and non-government agencies, lawyers, social scientists, etc. to imaginatively illustrate how and why certain features
of negotiations have been helpful and why other features continue to create troublesome deadlocks. Conflict analysis models would
not create another set of 'rules', but they could promote manoeuvrability within existing conventions and attitudes to problem-solving.
- Many involved with resource developments in Australia could be sceptical as to whether conflict analysis is appropriate to facilitate
harmonious outcomes from agreements. Some might feel that the problems are not serious enough to warrant direct comparisons with
other circumstances where problems have resulted in violent clashes. Many might also feel confident that they already have an adequate
understanding of the contributing factors, and do not see how reiterating what the various power and value differences are will necessarily
re-direct the discourse away from adversarial approaches to settlement. However, even if only one party opts to use the framework
of conflict analysis prior to negotiation, it could play a very positive role in setting clearer agendas and introducing certain
constructive features into a process. It may help to clarify how and why adversarial approaches may not necessarily resolve all
the issues. Conventional approaches may, for instance, enhance a group's chances of immediate material gains, but there may be
little opportunity to gain the longer-term advantages of constructive psychological settlements about co-existence. Failure to
achieve psychological settlements can contribute to further polarisations about whether groups understand or trust one another.
Prior underlying antagonisms can resurface as new types of conflict. A single settlement of a complex issue can produce even more
complex sets of repercussions. Developing a framework through which to present the complexities of an interaction promotes a learning
process to avoid settling for strategies which are too simplistic or narrow.
- Another advantage of adopting the models and methods derived from conflict resolution is that they help to alleviate the stresses
which are usually associated with poor communication between groups in decision-making. The features that it offers to promote
better communication in decision-making are similar to the models and techniques that peace-builders and peace-keepers use when working
with groups whose seemingly hopeless deadlock has created a hostile conflict zone and deep-seated enmities.[8]
- Large-scale resource developments are not simply interactions between two major groups, such as a mining corporation and an indigenous
community. Rather, they are an interaction between the economic, political and social sectors. Each sector maintains very different
forms of power, and each form will have its impact at the intersections of different/competing/changing social scenarios.[9] When corporations engage in cross-cultural negotiations, they draw on the expertise of social and environmental scientists who can
convey an understanding of the issues to be addressed relating to cultural difference and environmental impact before proceeding
with negotiation. However, the significance of findings may not be fully appreciated and responded to if they are simply filtered
into conventional management structures which are understandably concerned with the immediate economic concerns of the corporation.
Pro-active conflict analysis could assist corporations to make the most effective use of physical and social science data by channeling
what information is to hand through processes that also encourage the most meaningful dialogue.
- Conflict analysis helps to interpret a wide range of features that can direct the course of an interaction, particularly when a proposed
project will produce a set of changing circumstances. The framework gives equal standing to the dynamics of both the 'formal' and
'informal' influences and driving forces, all of which are inevitably present and make their impact. Formal aspects of a negotiation
are represented through political, legal and bureaucratic structures. They tend to focus on material arrangements specified in
fixed contractual settlements. Settlements may fail to accommodate features which are intangible, even though they are nevertheless
integral to the exchange. They relate to a quality of co-existence and recognition. Conflict analysis recognises that 'informal'
features, such as how trust, respect and co-operation are being expressed, will influence both the negotiation and the outcomes of
settlements. If cross-cultural negotiations focus primarily on material issues, or a formal style which inhibits some groups from
participating and expressing their underlying concerns, a significant burden of complexity and unpredictability in the ensuing inter-group
dynamics can be created. This gives the illusion that complex problems are always too much of a 'can of worms' to be tackled through
open processes. Conflict analysis suggests pro-active ways to integrate more features at the outset of negotiations, and helps
to specify far more accurately the fundamental differences in values, lifestyles, goals and power which will come into play in the
interactions.
- Parties to a negotiation may consider that to expend resources on actively looking for trouble or exploring ways to alleviate any
further polarisation of ideas could simply result in 'analysis paralysis' and should be avoided unless problems of 'crisis' proportions
are anticipated. Groups may feel that they cannot gauge whether conflict analysis would make a significant difference, particularly
when what it produces is, in one sense, a 'non-event'. However, with regard to cross-cultural resource development projects, the
issue of accountability for the outcomes of projects is increasingly being correlated with the quality of preliminary impact studies
and negotiation processes. Academic institutions, such as the Program on Negotiation in the School of Law at Harvard University[10] and the Conflict Resolution Consortium at the University of Colorado[11], are putting forward imaginative programs which promote and demonstrate how and why certain alternative negotiation strategies may
better satisfy and fulfil the needs of a wide range of groups. Such institutions promote approaches to problem-solving that can
be relevant for business corporations, government agencies and community groups. The programs realistically address the fact that
in many situations involving competition for resources, some features will inevitably be intractable, and are unlikely to result
in simple win/win outcomes. However, even when it would be unrealistic to anticipate that everyone will be totally satisfied with
the outcomes, analysis can help to devise processes which monitor for the likelihood that one contending group will achieve its goals
through means which present a significant threat to other groups. This can provide a check to guard against the eventuality that
some people will incur an unequal or unjust degree of social risk.
- Even when indigenous groups cannot bring influence to bear to avert an unwanted development, or have a significant role in deciding
how a development should be introduced into their region, there may still be opportunities to influence the process to ensure that
the rights and life chances of indigenous communities are recognised and protected. An important function that those skilled in conflict
resolution could offer would be to assist parties to identify how they could possibly work toward, and even insist upon, commonly
understood ideas about anticipated results, and consider whether goals are likely to merge, cross-over, or require one group's interests
to override those of others. Conflict analysis is particularly useful to evaluate changing needs in changing circumstances through
ongoing careful identification of what values and what types of power are directing proposals for action. Hopefully this could
encourage more innovative thinking about outcomes, considering the bigger picture, and the long term risks.
- This type of 'economic diplomacy' could come to be appreciated by corporate decision-makers as a means of averting the development
or continuance of costly and often avoidable misunderstandings that foster difficult working environments and 'cultures of non-cooperation'.
The primary benefit for those who work in mining and related industries could be the development of practical and mutually beneficial
ways to engage within an unfamiliar social situation and be better able to identify stress-points that can escalate problems into
conflicts. It may benefit a corporation in savings of time, money, misspent energy and a poor reputation.
- Social risk analysis and negotiating skills may well become crucial components of corporate competitive advantage, an indication of
how well corporations effectively adapt to new social as well as physical environments. How well they can identify, monitor and
review change in an interactive social environment could offer 'strategic advantage'. Conventionally, aspects of an exchange which
relate to 'intangible' values have been viewed more or less as 'trade-offs', sacrifices that a corporation is prepared to offer in
order to realise direct tangible values. Even though there could be significant potential advantages for corporations that adopt
innovative approaches which give 'intangible' values a significant place in mainstream managerial structures, they would need to
be initiated at a high level in order to overcome the many organisational, procedural and psychological barriers to their incorporation.
- Perhaps this paper could be a catalyst to sound out where there is interest and support to explore the potential usefulness of pro-active
conflict analysis. It could be useful for those devising and implementing policy at the federal, state and local levels of government,
people working at different levels within corporate management, and people within indigenous communities who will be considering
how to meaningfully respond and interact within a changing environment. It could make a viable contribution to cross-cultural problem-solving
relating to resource developments because it presents positive options when people feel challenged by what seem to be almost irreconcilable
constraints on reaching agreement. Conflict arises when disputes and problems seem insurmountable for a wide variety of reasons.
However, conflict does not have to take one prescribed path. Individuals can use it creatively and positively by adapting the human
propensity to plan and organise. This is the direction which is promoted by people working in the field of conflict resolution.
They attempt to present options to people who are enmeshed in very threatening and confusing interactions. There is a lot that
can be learnt about conflict aversion from both the theory and practice of conflict resolution. The challenge in Australia is whether
individuals see the correlation between 'other people's problems' and local issues that are immediately confronting them to do with
bridging the gap between factions who do not easily understand one another. It can be a profoundly empowering idea that each person
has the potential to consider new approaches to others with whom they seem to have intractable disagreement.
- I have listed some websites which offer general information and useful links relating to conflict analysis and peace studies.[12] I would also be pleased to provide further information about my own applications of conflict analysis, and would welcome opportunities
for discussion. My consultative work relates to:
- Social Risk Analysis: a framework through which to evaluate the range of influences on decision-making in cross-cultural resource
development projects, and
- A training program entitled 'Preparing for Negotiation' which is designed to assist individuals or groups to clarify issues and develop
problem-solving skills relevant to a forthcoming negotiation about changing uses of land and/or resources.
[1] International Centre for the Environment/Mining and Environment Research Network University of Bath, UK http://www.bath.ac.uk/ICE/ The Environmental Technology and Public Policy Program http://web.mit.edu/dusp/etpp/strategy.html
[2] Maybury-Lewis, D. (1998) Indigenous Peoples, Ethnic Groups, and the State. Allyn & Bacon, Needham, MA. Maybury-Lewis, D. and
Macdonald T. (Eds.) (1998) Cultural Survival: Studies in Ethnicity and Change, Allyn & Bacon, Needham, MA.
[3] Ayres, E., 1996, The Shadow Economy, Worldwatch, July/August 1996
Curle, A. 'Contemporary Samsara' UK Network of Engaged Buddhists
http://www.peckham.demon.co.uk/samsara.html(Professor Adam Curle was the first Chair of Peace Studies at Bradford University)
[4] Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
http://www.sipri.se/
[5] Mobbs, C. & Dovers, S. (Eds) (1999) 'Social, Economic, Legal, Policy and Institutional R&D for Natural Resources Management:
Issues and Directions for LWRRDC' Occasional Paper 01/99, Land and Water Resources Research and Development Corporation, Canberra,
ACT
[6] Bond, D. Jenkins, C., Taylor C.L. & Schock, K. (1997) Mapping Mass Political Conflict and Civil Society: Issues and Prospects
for the Automated Development of Event Data.
http://data.fas.harvard.edu/cfia/pnscs/DOCS/Papers/MappingConflict.htm
Wehr, P. Burgess, H. & Burgess, G., (1994) Justice Without Violence, Lynne Reinner Publishers Inc. Boulder, CO.
[7] Some examples of literature relating to Peace Studies/Conflict Resolution:
Boulding, K., (1990) 'Peace Theory' in Smoker, P., Davies
R. & Munske, B. (Eds) A Reader in Peace Studies, Pergamon Press, Oxford UK
Burrowes, R. J., (1996) The Strategy of Nonviolence
Defense: A Gandhian Approach, State University of New York, Albany NY
Galtung, J., (1995) 'Violence, Peace, and Peace Research'
in Salla, M., Tonetto, W & Martinez, E. (Eds) Essays on Peace, Central Queensland University Press, Rockhampton.
Sharpe, G.
(1973) The Politics of Nonviolent Action, Porter Sargent, Boston, MA.
Tillett, G. (1991) Resolving Conflict: A Practical Approach,
Sydney University Press
[8] Curle, A. (1990) Tools for Transformation: A Personal Study, Hawthorn Press, London
Woodhouse, T. (1991) 'Making Peace: The Work
of Adam Curle' in Woodhouse, T.(Ed.) Peacemaking in a Troubled World, Berg, UK
[9] Boulding, K. E. (1989) Three Faces of Power, Sage Publications Newbury Park, CA.
[10] Program on Negotiation at Harvard Law School, a consortium of Harvard, MIT, and Tufts University committed to improving the theory
and practice of negotiation and dispute resolution. http://www.pon.harvard.edu/
[11] Conflict Resolution Consortium, University of Colorado, Boulder, USA
http://www.colorado.edu/conflict/
[12] Peace Studies, University of New England, Armidale, NSW
http://www.une.edu.au/arts/PeaceStd/pgrad.htm
Australian-American Conflict Management Working Group, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW http://www.gsm.mq.edu.au/conflict/usa/AACMWG.HTM
International Institute for Negotiation and Conflict Management
University of Technology, Sydney, NSW http://www.law.uts.edu.au/iincm/index.html
Program on Nonviolent Sanctions and Cultural Survival, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. USA http://data.fas.harvard.edu/cfia/pnscs/homepage.htm
Canadian Peacebuilding Network, Canadian Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade http://www.dfait-maeci.gc.ca/peacebuilding/cpn-e.asp
Department of Peace Studies, University of Bradford, UK
http://www.brad.ac.uk/acad/peace/home.html
Initiative on Conflict Resolution and Ethnicity, Ulster, UK
http://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/about/index.html
Berghof Research Center for Constructive Conflict Management, Berlin, Germany
http://www.b.shuttle.de/berghof/index.htm
Peace Studies Program, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY
http://www.einaudi.cornell.edu/PeaceProgram/
Toda Institute for Global Peace and Policy Research
Honolulu, Hawaii http://www.toda.org/
Tampere Peace Research Institute, Finland http://www.uta.fi/laitokset/tapri/
The Online Journal of Peace and Conflict Resolution http://members.aol.com/peacejnl/index.htm
The Centre for Peacemaking and Conflict Studies Fresno Pacific University, California http://www.fresno.edu/pacs/
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