Journal of Law, Information and Science
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BRIAN GIBSON[*]
Computer based learning receives a diverse press, particularly as it relates to higher education. As a learning strategy, it offers benefits to students but challenges traditional modes of teaching. There is a tendency to see computer based learning purely as a technological tool that has been forged by recent advances in the silicon chip. However, there have been other developments that may ensure computer based learning survives its second or third resurrection. More attention is being paid to higher levels of learning such as student-centred learning or collaborative learning and if these strategies can be harnessed in conjunction with developments in technology then the survival of computer based learning seems assured.
These headlines and others reflect the considerable changes occurring within education, and in higher education in particular. “Multimedia drives education future”, “Electronic classroom education’s reality” and so on, are puzzling statements that tend to reflect the state educators find themselves in when coping with change. That they do cope is often a sign of their persistence rather than their perception that change is needed. However, it is becoming clear that a shift in direction is underway and that change will eventually alter the ways that students are taught. This change which is, to a greater or less extent, computer driven has the power to change our views of education as nothing else has. It is taking place within a mode of instruction often referred to as educational technology but a subset of this, computer based learning, is also transforming higher education. At present, it is undergoing an acceptance phase but must inevitably be integrated as its benefits are realised.
Is there need for educational change? Are computers the best delivery medium to achieve improvements in learning? Will the implementation of computer based learning lead to efficiencies? The answers to these questions and others are yet to be found and the process is to a certain extent being driven by groups other than educators. For example, it is not often that the question of how students respond to the technology and engage it, is asked. There is also a tendency to develop computer based learning programmes to replace large sections of a curriculum rather than those sections which students have difficulties mastering via other methods. In higher education, the development of computer based learning programmes was, and still is, seen as an ideal way to make faculty computers cost effective, to ease the teaching load of lecturers or to substitute for tutors. Written as additional performance indicators these could pacify budget administrators dismayed at the costs of purchasing and maintaining computer networks. Little thought is given to the notion that a carefully designed computer based learning programme could offer students a more significant and individualised learning experience.
As the lecture is still the predominant mode of instruction within institutions, the axiom that education has undergone considerable change should be treated with caution. Whiteboards may have replaced blackboards and substitutes found for coloured chalk but there is still someone at the front of the room “imparting knowledge” or dominating discussion in small group teaching. The lecture is economic, (How else can three hundred students enrolled in one subject be taught?) can spread the message quickly but “it is neither interactive nor adaptive: it does not encourage reflection by the student, and only the teacher is able to communicate their conception” (Laurillard 1993, pg 107). Its focus is on teaching students with the hope that students will grasp the fundamentals and be sufficiently aroused to investigate further in their own time. Unfortunately the transfer of learning does not often occur and, in some cases, understanding is decreased. This teaching style is changing or should change to one in which lecturers involve and value students in the learning process. After all, students are considerably different than they were years ago as is the world that they live in. Burke contends that today’s students are, “more diverse in gender, culture and ethnicity. They are older and often attend classes only part time because they must work, often full time” (Burke 1994). So, is the technology leading the change or is it the results of research into learning strategies?
Computer based learning has undergone considerable change as a result of increased research into areas of learning and student use of computers. This research is far from conclusive but programme developers and instructional designers have much more information on the learning strategies which are proving effective. As an educational tool, an adjunct to the existing teaching and learning process, computer based learning is only as good as the amount of effort expended in its design. The instructional content should be the focus of those seeking either the implementation or demise of computer based learning rather than whether a computer is doing the teaching.
Computer based learning has also changed as educators rather than programmers, subject specialists or designers have become involved in its research and development. It is not yet at the stage where it can be considered an effective learning tool although some programmes are coming close. Other programmes tend to mimic the traditional lecture, replicate textbook material or focus on the repetition of facts and formulae. There must be more work done on creating meaningful learning opportunities within computer based learning programmes which ensure active student involvement and improve interaction with content.
Computer based learning programmes have, in the past, done little to improve student interaction with content but have used “reproductive approaches” such as multiple choice tests in an attempt to improve student knowledge (Ramsden 1992, pg 84). Techniques such as this and others do not facilitate student understanding of the content nor do they assist “adaptation”, how students merge new knowledge with existing knowledge (Eggan and Kauchak 1992, pg 38). For many students who do not have the relevant pre-requisite knowledge and therefore cannot adequately master content, rote learning formulae and facts may be expedient but it is hardly meaningful learning.
Biggs and Telfer examines the differences between students using a deep approach to learning (where students seek to understand ) and those adopting a surface approach (students only intend to complete task requirements) (Ramsden 1992, pg 46). The latter were “.. bored, alienated, anxious or resentful” while the former were “..exhilarated, satisfied, challenged or intrigued” (Biggs and Telfer 1986, pg 160-161). Therefore, encouraging the trend toward “high quality learning outcomes” should be the goal of all educators. (Ramsden 1992, pg 125). Higher education, however, has a poor record in implementing strategies which assist students to become better learners. Biggs and Telfer note that in universities, after attaining higher learning strategies in secondary education, “..ordinary undergraduates drop deep and achieving approaches alarmingly... (Biggs and Telfer 1986, pg 155).
This is in spite of the fact that most higher education institutions must have a similar goal to that expressed in a document entitled “Planning For A New Century” which requires the University of Tasmania to develop “a teaching and learning environment of the highest quality”. Higher education is still debating the issue by re-examining the lecture and the uses of computers in universities. In issues of the Australian Campus Review, headlines such as “IT Revolution Chokes On Clouds Of Chalk Dust” and “Where Is The Evidence On CBE?” are signs of a healthy debate on the impact of information technology. Unfortunately, debates on the merits of lecturing and lecturing styles are few and far between. The question though, is not whether lectures are more effective than computer based learning or vice versa but whether the chosen instructional strategy assists the transfer of learning. Imagine a toolbag of strategies in which the most appropriate tool is selected for the task at hand.
Increasingly, educators realise that students must not be passive recipients of knowledge but be actively engaged in the process of learning as “greater assimilation of information occurs” (Thomas and Knezek 1991, pg 50). This trend is already having an effect on computer based learning as the computer takes on the role of deliverer of information rather than the instructor. This forms the basis for constructivism, a cognitive learning theory where, according to Tinkler, “the learner constructs his/her own world picture (reality) from experience” (Tinkler 1994, pg 149). The instructor (either computer or lecturer) assists the student in developing a “world picture” but not in a style akin to lecturing or telling. The necessity for students to take some responsibility for their own education is becoming increasingly important. Allied with this, educators must realise that their traditional strategies are looking dated, more “suited to the industrial age of assembly line productivity, but in the third wave ... a new vision seems necessary” (Shneiderman 1992, pg 17).
Thomas and Knezek have considered the traditional learning strategies that dominate education and seek to institute “restructured learning experiences” which may have an impact on student learning and which should determine the way academics teach. On the left in the table below, are those strategies characteristic of Ramsden’s “surface learning” and on the right those strategies that encourage “deep learning” (Ramsden 1992, pg 46).
linear progression ----› multipath progression
teacher-centred ----› student-centred
literal thinking ----› critical thinking
single medium ----› multisensory
teacher as deliverer ----› teacher as facilitator
passive learner ----› active learner
classroom interaction ----› real world interaction
(Thomas and Knezek 1991, pg 50).
Unfortunately, those strategies on the right of the table require more effort on the part of academics and administration to adopt. The perception in higher education is that since they can be costly to implement, time-consuming to organise and appear slightly radical then the best course of action is to do nothing. Computer based learning programmes which encourage deep learning are being developed and these must be supported by the academic community rather than those which promote surface learning.
Within each strategy there should be “events of instruction” which will also assist students in the transfer of learning (Gagne et al. 1988, pg 11). These events are common to different media or modes of teaching and learning but research is underway to determine more appropriate sequences for computer based learning programmes. Most computer based learning programmes which have been developed for students should have incorporated at least some of the elements listed below. Those programmes lacking the events should be considered as instructionally unsound and used in conjunction with other strategies.
Stimulation to gain attention ...
Informing learners of the learning objective ...
Reminding learners of previously learned content ...
Clear and distinctive presentation of material ...
Guidance of learning ...
Eliciting performance, involving response generation,
Providing feedback about performance,
Assessing the performance...
Arranging variety of practice to aid future retrieval and transfer.
(Gagne et al. 1988, pg 12)
Hypertext and hypermedia have been touted as learning strategies imbued with almost magical characteristics in improving student knowledge. Hypertext allows students to link information from various text sources that usually have a common theme. For example, by selecting a subject such as plants, it should be possible for student to investigate various types, their environment, growing habits and distinctive properties simply by clicking on buttons which link the information. Hypermedia allows similar connectivity but the media involved may consist of video clips, laser disk, or sound, so that users could view photographs of the plant and observe its growing cycle on video.
Hypertext moves learners from a linear (viewing a video is linear) to a multipath progression (allows linking by association). It allows them to determine how much information they require but can also persuade learners to go beyond the assigned material. Landow contends that the ability to establish links between material is an effective learning strategy as “hypertext materials can.. both teach students the context of materials they study and accustom them to ask questions about contextualization as well” (Landow 1992, pg 196). Some computer based learning programmes that have adopted the hypertext approach should only be considered as reference works (such as Microsoft’s Encarta Encyclopedia) and programmes such as these which conform to the “reproductive approach” must be placed at the lower end of the learning continuum (Ramsden 1992, pg 84).
Multimedia, another strategy, and a hybrid form of computer based learning, offers student-centred learning not often found in the traditional classroom. It is a platform that brings together hardware and software, computer and user, for multipath, multi-sense information delivery. Multi-sense, in that it combines text, audio, video, still and animated images. But its potential lies in its flexibility. Multimedia provides opportunities for students to accelerate progress, discover and master content in their own time, at their own pace and with the option of studying in a place of their choosing. It is also consistent, in comparison to that rare lecture which promotes learning and leaves all feeling they have accomplished something. This flexibility is the driving force behind the development of multimedia and it may result in considerable change to the delivery of higher education in the future.
Open learning or distance education also has the potential to impact on the delivery of traditional education particularly in combination with computer based learning or multimedia programmes. Computer based learning programmes can be delivered over networks to students with computer access. The networks can be supplied and maintained by educational institutions but it is increasingly likely that public access to networks will also be made available. For example, recent discussion in the USA with regard to network services places the tools to access such services either within public libraries or post offices.
While this may seem visionary, it is clear that change is occurring and equally clear that education must keep up with the changes. Lecturers must realise that compelling students to attend lectures so that they can copy notes from overheads or listen passively to a lecture is irrational considering the variety of information delivery methods available. (What happens to the learning of those students who are absent from lectures?) Distance education can also extend access to all levels of the educational system such as adult education and can reinforce the concept of life-long learning. Keller’s vision for the future focuses on the technology rather than instructional strategy but offers a glimpse of how education may be provided -
Portable phones, electronic mail, facsimile machines, computers with modems, satellite transmission, interactive video, and other devices mean the place bound campus is less and less central.
(Keller 1992, pg 2)
The Internet, a diverse group of network services, attracts thousands of users and offers access to educational and other services via a modem and computer. It is possible to complete a higher education degree by enrolling in a “Virtual University”, to access databases of documents, to “visit” Le Louvre, to shop on-line and it is becoming easier to involve students from various parts of the world in collaborative learning. The Internet can be used to enhance classroom teaching and offer students unique learning experiences which are comparable to Thomas and Knezek’s “real world interaction” but its capacity is, at present, limited due to bandwidth constraints (Thomas and Knezek 1991, pg 55). It is also expensive and access to services is slower for home users.
Harasim specifies “idea generating, idea linking and idea structuring” as the key components of an interactive, collaborative learning experience using Internet services but contends that the tools for achieving this are still being refined (Harasim 1990, pg 45). One hopes that the mode of presentation will change too as learning via electronic mail or the Internet is still essentially passive rather than interactive. Sims defines seven levels of interactivity which may assist the transfer of learning in computer based learning programmes -
1. Passive interactivity - page turning by user
2. Hierarchical interactivity - menu selection by user
3. Update interactivity - user answers questions and receives feedback
4. Construct interactivity - user manipulates components to complete a task
5. Simulation interactivity - user as controller or operator
6. Free interactivity - hyperlinks determined by user
7. Situate interactivity - user is immersed in real world tasks.
(Sims 1994, pp 589-594)
When instructionally sound computer based learning programmes can be used with ease on the Internet then it is likely to directly challenge many facets of education. This ease of use is not only confined to computer based learning programmes but includes software such as Mosaic, Anarchie or Netscape that allow access to Internet services. The diverse information available on the Internet will only become accessible to a wider audience as developers improve the interface on these tools.
Hardware, such as powerful computers, Compact Disc Read Only Memory (CDROM) drives, laser videodiscs, printers, scanners and video cameras, has reduced significantly in cost and become easier to use with the advent of user friendly operating systems. Digital technology is becoming a reality as faster computers with greater storage space become available. IDC Australia research indicates that the home computer market is the fastest growing segment of computer sales with the current (July 1994) mainstream purchase a 486/66Mhz computer, 8mb of RAM and 270Mb hard disk drive.
CDROM technology consists of a player (drive) connected to a computer and platters which hold the content, but it is basically a storage device. A device, however, that is being promoted by manufacturers as an essential component for every computer system purchased in the future. The silver platters are used as floppy disks were, to store software, to distribute it cheaply and allow users to copy the material onto hard disks. The player accesses information on the platter allowing it to be shown on computer, however a CDROM is not as fast as a hard disk and the slow access speed can be frustrating.
A CDROM does hold a significant amount of information (around 650Mb) and it holds the type of material used in the construction of multimedia such as video clips, sound and high quality graphics, all of which take up considerable storage space. Currently, research is being undertaken to extend the capacity of a CDROM so that a full-length feature film (up to 2 hours) will fit onto a single platter. Of course, this digital technology will render the old analogue technology, video tape, obsolete and with the advent of “set-top boxes” which will be able to play from and record to CDROM, the video recorder will be on its way out (McHugh 1994, pg 16).
Currently commercial development of CDROM consist mainly of “edutainment” titles, electronic encyclopedias, text databases, reference works and interactive games. Kodak PhotoCD differs in that photographs are stored on CDROM and the images viewed on a television set using a specially designed player. Electronic encyclopedias offer sound, video, text and graphics, and replace traditional paper-based products for around the same cost. Electronic databases such as LEXIS or ERIC are also stored on CDROM but common standards and improvements to the interface must be adopted to ensure efficient information retrieval.
CDROM can also store computer based learning lessons for distribution to students. These lessons are often interactive, permit individualised learning and can offer feedback on a student’s progress. More importantly, they can be loaded onto a personal computer allowing students to use computer based learning programmes at home. Titles are being developed by both education and training institutions but few are marketed successfully in Australia.
Compact disk interactive or CD-I is another form of CDROM that allows the user to interact with information in an active rather than passive mode. The user has more control over what is being viewed and can manipulate multimedia via a remote control. CD-I requires a set-top box (one has been produced by the Philips organisation), not a desktop computer, and information can be viewed on a television screen. CD-I is considered to be an emerging technology that may impact on education and universities. It is possible that computer based learning will be delivered to students on CD-I in the future as it reduces the necessity for expensive computer purchases or computer support personnel. There are set-top boxes available at present from manufacturers such as Amiga and Sega which play CDROM games and which can adequately show CDROM movies.
Interactive television is a similar concept to CD-I but its content is distributed by television networks or service providers. A set-top box will still be required to download signals from television stations and upload responses. According to Brown and Anderson, users will be able to participate in sporting programs, distance education, game shows, home shopping and access general information through their television set, a set-top box and a remote control (Brown and Anderson 1994, pg 46). However, a recent survey indicated that the demand for interactive television services such as home shopping and downloading videos may not be as anticipated. Respondents ranked the following services they would prefer to use on interactive television, in order of importance -
1. Vote in elections
2. Search reference books
3. Long distance learning
4. Local school information
5. Participation in opinion polls
“Video on demand” is another visionary service which should be accessible through interactive television sometime in the future. Video can be transmitted through the phone line at or near broadcast quality via a set-top box located above the television. If the phone lines can tolerate the transmission of large amounts of information in this way then it means satellites, microwaves or optical fibre which would normally carry the signal are unnecessary for the creation of a viable interactive television service. It also means that more people will have access to interactive services and at a lower cost. However, in Australia, at the moment, service providers are investigating all modes in order to deliver programmes to users. Initially, services may allow downloading new release videos and this may see the demise of video shops but it is still unclear whether Australia will adopt this technology or if it does, how successful it will be. Brown and Anderson predict that this service will be in operation within Australia at the turn of the century (Brown and Anderson 1994, pg 46).
The transformation of content into digital form is also taking place and this will have a significant impact on the development of computer based learning programmes. The State Library of New South Wales is currently instituting a program of digitising sections of its collection thus making material accessible to multimedia developers (Crook 1994, pg 605). This means that historic documents, photographs and other resources can be placed within programmes at a reasonable cost. Content is currently being secured overseas from diverse sources by media magnates and large corporations. The anticipated cost of purchasing the rights to this content may hinder the development of educational multimedia in the future. Recently, the Prime Minister, Paul Keating delivered the government’s Creative Nation statement which provides federal funds for the development of multimedia content. This may see the growth of CDROM titles with uniquely Australian content.
Developments in technology are driving changes in the education process, however it is the instructional strategy not the technology that leads to improvements in learning. Each complements the other but cannot exist in isolation as learning suffers. The technology offers flexibility for both educator and learner as well as individualisation of lessons for the student.
Effective teaching and learning requires commitment from both student and educator. It would be negligent for a supervisor to allow workers to push buttons without providing them with information beforehand on what may happen and the same principle applies to lecturers. Lecturers must assume more responsibility for improving student learning. Students should also be much more insistent on the provision of better teaching and learning opportunities in universities. In higher education, the excellent lecture that transforms learning for students is rare and other means of ensuring the transfer of knowledge must be investigated.
Computer based learning, if properly designed, integrated within the curriculum and established in policies so that it is seen as a valid teaching tool not another teacher, has the potential to change the ways lecturers teach and the ways students learn. This must be a priority as already there is a perception in society that education is not preparing students for the future but that, in fact, many students lack understanding of basic concepts on graduation.
In a society that is undergoing considerable change, part of the challenge is to institute appropriate strategies to accommodate change. It is not whether the “superhighway” will make or break education or whether the Internet will become the school of the future but whether students have the opportunities to realise their full potential within an educational setting.
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[*] Dip. Teach., B. Ed., Grad. Dip. Bus.
Computer Assisted Learning Officer
School of Commerce and Law
University of Tasmania
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